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AY Honors/Agriculture/Answer Key

2013-02-11T13:41:08Z

213.82.45.148: /* 3. Test the germination of three varieties of seeds, 100 seeds in each variety. Record germination percentage after three, four, and five days. */

{{honor_header|2|1929|Outdoor Industries|General Conference|Agriculture_Honor.png}}
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==4. Explain how plants obtain nutrients and convert them to food. Explain the differences between primary, secondary, and micronutrients.==
Fertilizers can be divided into macronutrients or micronutrients based on their concentrations in plant dry matter. There are six macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, often termed "primary macronutrients" because their availability is usually managed with NPK fertilizers, and the "secondary macronutrients" — calcium, magnesium, and sulfur — which are required in roughly similar quantities but whose availability is often managed as part of liming and manuring practices rather than fertilizers. The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and normally present as a whole number or tenths of percentages in plant tissues (on a dry matter weight basis). There are many micronutrients (such as boron, chlorine, manganese, iron, zinc, copper, and molybdenum), required in concentrations ranging from 5 to 100 parts per million (ppm) by mass.

The uptake of nutrients by plants is accomplished through both the roots and the leaves. These nutrients are then used in the process of photosynthesis, which is a complex chemical reaction that converts light, carbon dioxide, and water into sugars.

==5. Name and identify ten common weeds of your community and tell how to best eliminate them, using cultural or chemical methods.==
===Chenopodium album===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Fat hen
| latin_name = Chenopodium album
| image =ChenopodiumAlbum001.JPG
| range = Worldwide
| description =
''Chenopodium album'' is a fast-growing weedy annual plant in the genus ''Chenopodium''. The standard English name is Fat-hen; other names include white goosefoot, lamb's quarters, pigweed or dungweed, or more ambiguously as just goosefoot.
| control =
It may be controlled by dark tillage, rotary hoeing, or flaming when the plants are small. Crop rotation of small grains will suppress an infestation. It is, however, difficult to control with chemical means.
}}
=== Stellaria===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Chickweed
| latin_name =Stellaria
| image =StellariaMedia001.JPG
| range =Europe, North America
| description =Stellaria is a genus of about 90-120 species flowering plants in the family Caryophyllaceae, with a cosmopolitan distribution. Common names include stitchwort and chickweed.
| control =Control is difficult due to the heavy seed sets, although herbicides are effective when the plants are small. Common Chickweed is very competitive with small grains, and can produce up to 80% yield losses among barley.
}}

===Ranunculus ficaria ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Lesser celandine
| latin_name =Ranunculus ficaria
| image =Ranunculus ficaria LC0016.jpg
| range =The plant is found throughout Europe and west Asia and is now introduced in North America.
| description =
The window of opportunity for controlling lesser celandine is very short, due to its life cycle. In order to have the greatest negative impact to celandine and the least impact to desirable native wildflower species, herbicide should be applied in late winter-early spring (March through May). Apply a 1.5% rate of a 39 to 41% glyphosate isopropylamine salt (e.g., Rodeo® for wetland areas) mixed with water and a non-ionic surfactant to foliage, avoiding application to anything but the celandine. Glyphosate is systemic; that is, the active ingredient is absorbed by the plant and translocated to the roots, eventually killing the entire plant. The full effect on the plant may take 1-2 weeks. Applications can be made during the winter season as long as the temperature is above about 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and no rain is anticipated within 12 hours. Because glyphosate is non-specific, spray should be controlled such that it touches only lesser celandine and does not drift onto desirable plants. To minimize impacts to sensitive-skinned frogs and salamanders, some experts recommend applying herbicide in March and then switching to manual methods.
}}

===Oxalis ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Wood sorrel
| latin_name = Oxalis
| image =Oxalis acetosella jfg.jpg
| caption =''Oxalis acetosella'' (Common woodsorrel)
| range =The genus occurs throughout most of the world, except for the polar areas; species diversity is particularly rich in tropical Brazil and Mexico and in South Africa.
| description =Oxalis is the largest genus in the wood sorrel family Oxalidaceae. Of the approximately 900 known species in the Oxalidaceae, 800 belong to Oxalis. Many of the species are known as Wood Sorrel or Woodsorrel. These plants are annual or perennial. The leaves are divided into three to ten or more round, heart-shaped or lanceolate leaflets, arranged in a whorl with all the leaflets of roughly equal size. The majority of species have three leaflets; in these species, the leaves are superficially similar to those of some clovers, though clovers differ in having the leaflets not in a whorl, and of unequal size with two smaller side leaflets and one larger central leaflet.
| control = Diuron has potential for use as an over-the-top application for postemergence oxalis control, and timely irrigation has the potential to reduce injury to sensitive crops.
}}

=== Elytrigia repens===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Couch Grass
| latin_name =Elytrigia repens
| image =Kweek Elytrigia repens.jpg
| range =''Elytrigia repens'' is a very common species of grass native to most of Europe, Asia, and northwest Africa.
| description =Other names include twitch, quick grass, quitch grass, dog grass, and quackgrass.
It has creeping rhizomes which enable it to grow rapidly across grassland. The stems ('culms') grow to 40–150 cm tall; the leaves are linear, 15–40 cm long and 3–10 mm broad at the base of the plant, with leaves higher on the stems 2–8.5 mm broad. The flower spike is 10–30 cm long, with spikelets 1–2 cm long, 5–7 mm broad and 3 mm thick with three to eight florets. The glumes are 7–12 mm long, usually without an awn or with only a short one.
| control =Couch Grass is very difficult to remove from garden environments. One method is to dig deep into the ground in order to remove as much of the grass as possible. The area should then be covered with a thick layer of woodchips. To further prevent re-growth cardboard can be placed underneath the woodchips. The long, white rhizomes will, however, dry out and die if left on the surface.
}}

=== Ranunculus repens===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Creeping Buttercup
| latin_name =Ranunculus repens
| image =Creeping butercup close 800.jpg
| range =Native to Europe, Asia and northwestern Africa. Introduced to North America.
| description =Creeping Buttercup is a herbaceous, stoloniferous perennial plant growing to 50 cm tall. It has both prostrate running stems, which produce roots and new plants at the nodes, and more or less erect flowering stems. The basal leaves are divided into three broad leaflets 1.5–8 cm long, shallowly to deeply lobed, borne on a 4–20 cm long petiole; leaves higher on the stems are smaller, with narrower leaflets. Both the stems and the leaves are finely hairy. The flowers are bright golden yellow, 2–3 cm diameter, usually with five petals. The fruit is a cluster of achenes 2.5–4 mm long. Creeping buttercup has three-lobed dark green, white-spotted leaves that grow out of the node. It grows in fields and pastures and prefers wet soil.
| control =
From [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=177020 the USDA]
 
Chemical control is probably the best strategy to employ to eliminate the buttercup. Your local Cooperative Extension office can provide information on which pasture herbicides are most effective for controlling buttercup. Additionally, there is probably a large quantity of buttercup seed in the soil seedbank that may emerge after your initial control. Following best management practices can reduce future buttercups from emerging. Also, adding desirable pasture seed to the soil where the buttercup was growing will help fill in the bare areas.
}}

===Sinapis arvensis ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Charlock
| latin_name =Sinapis arvensis
| image =Herik 17-10-2005 13.59.40.JPG
| range = A native of Europe, it has also become naturalized throughout much of North America.
| description = Charlock, also known as wild mustard, is an annual or winter annual up to 1 m tall. The stems are erect with coarse spreading hairs near the base. The basal leaves are pinnatifid to dentate. The cauline leaves are much reduced and are short petiolate to sessile but not auriculate-clasping. The inflorescence is a raceme made up of yellow flowers having four petals. The fruit is a silique 3-5 cm long with a beak 1-2 cm long that is flattened-quadrangular. The valves of the silique are glabrous or rarely bristly, three to five nerved. The seeds are smooth 1-1.5 mm in diameter.
| control = Can be controlled by tilling the affected areas.
}}

===Senecio vulgaris ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Common groundsel
| latin_name =Senecio vulgaris
| image =Common Groundsel-first fruits.jpg
| caption =
| range =Common groundsel is a tenacious deciduous annual whose presence now encompasses the globe in a wide area of easy to somewhat difficult growing conditions.
| description =Standing only between 4 and 16 inches (10 to 41 cm) tall, bright florets mostly hidden by the characteristic bract giving it the appearance of never opening flowers and with a life span of 5-6 weeks, the self fertilizing Senecio vulgaris lives humbly among and occasionally under the other weeds and is easy to not notice.
| control =The ragwort flea beetle and ragwort seed fly have been approved and released for Senecio control in California, Australia and elsewhere.
}}

=== Galium aparine===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Cleavers, Bedstraw
| latin_name =Galium aparine
| image =Flowers February 2008-4.jpg
| range = Native to North America and Eurasia.
| description =
The long stems of this climbing plant sprawl over the ground and other plants, reaching heights of 1-1.5 m, occasionally 2 m. The leaves are simple and borne in whorls of six to eight. Both leaves and stem have fine hairs tipped with tiny hooks, making them cling to clothes and fur much like velcro. The white to greenish flowers are 2-3 mm across, with four petals.
| control = Cleavers, or Bedstraw, tends to grow in uncultivated areas, such as beneath fencelines and at the edges of fields. The main problem it presents to agriculture is that it clogs harvesting machinery. It is best controlled before it is allowed to propagate into cultivated fields by mechanical means, or by livestock.
}}

=== Cardamine hirsuta===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Hairy bittercress
| latin_name =Cardamine hirsuta
| image =Cardamine hirsuta.jpg
| caption =
| range = Native to Europe and Asia, but also present in North America as an invasive weed.
| description =The plant is a member of the mustard family (Brassicaceae), and is edible as a bitter herb. It flowers from quite early in the Spring until the Autumn. The small white flowers are borne in a corymb on wiry green stems, soon followed by the seeds and often continuing to flower as the first seeds ripen. The seed will burst explosively, often when touched, sending the seeds flying far from the parent plant. Seeds germinate in the Autumn, and the plants are green throughout the winter months.
| control = 
*Cultivation is effective on young plants that have not yet flowered.
*Mulching in late summer will prevent germination.
*Pulled plants should be placed directly into a container, as the seeds will continue to ripen even after the plant is pulled up.
*Flameweeding is effective.
}}

=== Rumex===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Dock
| latin_name =Rumex
| image =Rumex-britannica2.jpg
| caption =
| range = Members of this family are very common perennial herbs growing in acidic, sour soils mainly in the northern hemisphere, but have been introduced almost everywhere.
| description =These are erect plants with long tap roots. The fleshy to leathery leaves form a basal rosette at the root. The basal leaves may be different from those near the inflorescence. They may or may not have stipules. There are minor leaf veins. The leaf blade margins are entire or crenate.
| control = Keeping fields well drained will help control dock. Young plants may be controlled by cultivation, but because mature plants send tap roots deep into the soil, it is difficult to eradicate them this way. Chemical controls include applying a combination of glyphosate and dicamba via a wiper when the plants are at least 30cm higher than the crops in which they grow.
}}
===Taraxacum===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Dandelion
| latin_name =Taraxacum
| image =DandelionTatebayashiJapan.JPG
| caption =
| range =Dandelions are native to Africa, Asia and Europe, and have been widely introduced elsewhere. Away from their native regions, dandelions have become established in the Americas, Australia and New Zealand and are now common throughout all temperate regions.
| description =The leaves are 5-25 cm long, simple and basal, entire or lobed, forming a rosette above the central taproot. As the leaves grow outward they push down the surrounding vegetation, such as grass in a lawn, which kills other plants by cutting off their access to sunlight. A bright yellow flower head (which is open in the daytime but closes at night) is borne singly on a hollow stem (scape) which rises 4-30 cm above the leaves and exudes a milky sap (latex) when broken. A rosette may produce several flowering stems at a time. The flower head is 2-5 cm in diameter and consists entirely of ray florets. The flower head matures into a spherical "clock" containing many single-seeded fruits (achenes). Each achene is attached to a pappus of fine hairs, which enable wind-dispersal over long distances.
| control =
Dandelion seeds are windborn, so it is difficult to prevent an infestation. If possible, dig the plants up at the edge of a field before they produce seeds. Otherwise, chemicl controls may be necessary. Glyphosate, mecoprop, and other herbicides can be applied to young plants. 2, 4-D is effective against established infestations.
}}

===Calystegia ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Bindweed, Morning Glory
| latin_name =Calystegia
| image =Calystegia sepium ssp sepium bluete.jpeg
| caption =
| range = The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution in temperate and subtropical regions, but with half of the species endemic to California
| description = Bindweed are annual or herbaceous perennial twining vines growing to 1-5 m tall, with spirally arranged leaves. The flowers are trumpet shaped, 3-10 cm diameter, white or pink, with a sometimes inflated basal calyx. Some of the species, notably ''C. silvatica'', are problematic weeds, which can swamp other more valuable plants by climbing over them, but some are also deliberately grown for their attractive flowers.
| control = Bindweed is difficult to control once it becomes established. It is a very persistent weed, so control methods must necessarily be more persistent.

Bindweed should be tilled under about eight days following emergence. It will re-emerge, so it will need to be retilled several times during the growing season.

A systemic herbicide can also be used, such as 2,4-D or glyphosate. These herbicides must move in sufficient amounts through the roots, stems, and leaves in order to be effective.
}}

=== Urtica===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Nettle
| latin_name =Urtica
| image =Urtica-dioica(Blueten).jpg
| caption =
| range = ''Urtica'' has a cosmopolitan though mainly temperate distribution. The most prominent member of the genus is the stinging nettle ''Urtica dioica'', native to Europe, north Africa, Asia, and North America.
| description =This species have spiny hairs, or stinging trichomes, whose tips come off when touched, transforming the hair into a needle that will inject a cocktail of poisons: acetylcholine, histamine, 5-HT and possibly formic acid. This mix of poisons cause a sting or paresthesia from which the species derives its common name, as well as the colloquial name "7 minute itch".
| control = Nettles should be trimmed to the ground and then sprayed with glyphosate. If the re-emerge, they should quickly be hit with glyphosate a second time.
}}

===Polygonum cuspidatum ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Japanese knotweed
| latin_name =Polygonum cuspidatum
| image =Fallopia japonica MdE 2.jpg
| caption =
| range = Japanese knotweed is native to eastern Asia in Japan, China and Korea. In the U.S.A. and Europe the species is very successful and has been classified as invasive in several countries.
| description =A member of the family Polygonaceae, Japanese knotweed has hollow stems with distinct raised nodes that give it the appearance of bamboo, though it is not related. While stems may reach a maximum height of 3–4 m each growing season, it is typical to see much smaller plants in places where they sprout through cracks in the pavement or are repeatedly cut down. The leaves are broad oval with a truncated base, 7–14 cm long and 5–12 cm broad, with an entire margin. The flowers are small, creamy white, produced in erect racemes 6–15 cm long in late summer and early autumn.
| control =The success of the species has been partially attributed to its tolerance of a very wide range of soil types, pH and salinity.[2] Its rhizomes can survive temperatures of −35 °C (−30 °F) and can extend 7 meters (23 ft) horizontally and 3 meters (9.8 ft) deep, making removal by excavation difficult. The most effective method of control is by herbicide application close to the flowering stage in late summer or autumn. In some cases it is possible to eradicate Japanese knotweed in one growing season using only herbicides.
}}

===Cirsium arvense ===
{{Argicultural pest
| common_name = Creeping thistle
| latin_name =Cirsium arvense
| image =Cirsium arvense bluete.jpeg
| caption =
| range =Native throughout Europe and northern Asia, and widely introduced elsewhere.
| description =It is a tall herbaceous perennial plant, forming extensive clonal colonies from an underground root system that sends up numerous erect stems each spring, reaching 1–1.2 m tall (occasionally more); the stems often lie partly flat by summer but can stay erect if supported by other vegetation. The leaves are very spiny, lobed, up to 15–20 cm long and 2–3 cm broad (smaller on the upper part of the flower stem). The inflorescence is 10–22 mm diameter, pink-purple, with all the florets of similar form (no division into disc and ray florets).
| control =
This plant is extremely difficult to control, as it can regrow from fairly small root fragments and is resistant to many herbicides.

*Pre-emergents can help prevent the plant from becoming established, but it is generally more often encountered as a perennial problem.
*Contact herbicides are only partially effective. Glyphosate in particular needs to be repeatedly applied.
*Mowing is effective over time, if done regularly.
*Goldenrods are allelopathic to this plant. Smothercropping of buckwheat and winter rye will also weaken the plant considerably.
*Pulling must be done repeatedly over a long period, but will eventually kill the plant. Gloves should be worn.
*Smothering techniques such as paper mulch barriers are quite effective.
*Canada thistle should never be added to a cold-composting system. All parts of the plant should be burned, thrown away, or put into high-temperature composting systems.
}}

==6. Identify six common insect pests or diseases. Tell what plants they usually affect and how to eliminate or prevent their occurrence.==

=== Slug ===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = Great Grey Slug
| latin_name =Limax maximus
| image =DSCF8715 slug curled up lg.jpg
| caption =
| crop = Lettuce and cabbage are their favorites, but they will eat about anything.
| range = Native to Europe, the slugs have been introduced to Northern America and occur along the East and West sides of that continent. The slugs are almost always found near human habitation — usually in lawns, gardens, cellars or in other damp areas.
| description =The Great Grey Slug, ''Limax maximus'' (literally, "great slug"), also known as the Tiger slug or the Spotted leopard slug, is one of the largest kinds of keeled slug (second only to ''Limax cinereoniger''). The species is noted for its dark-spotted pale-grey body and the short keel on its tail. These nocturnal animals can grow to be as long as 8 inches (20 cm), feeding mostly on rotting plant matter and fungi. They live for up to three years and are inactive during the winter.
| control = Diatomite is a naturally occurring, soft, chalk-like sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled into a fine white to off-white powder. It is sometimes used as an insecticide, due to its physico-sorptive properties. The fine powder absorbs lipids from the cuticle, the waxy outer layer of insects' exoskeletons, causing them to dehydrate. This also works against gastropods and is commonly employed in gardening to defeat slugs. However, since slugs inhabit humid environments, efficacy is very low. It is sometimes mixed with an attractant or other additives to increase its effectiveness.

Among the disadvantages of using diatomaceous earth for pest control include the health risk to humans (see below), and that it is harmful to the many insects that are beneficial to gardens, including predatory beetles and bugs and many detritivores (such as earthworms).

One mechanical control is to cut a soda bottle in half and place it around the plants to keep slugs out. This is obviously labor intensive, and is therefore not practical for large crops.
}}

=== Colorado potato beetle===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = Colorado potato beetle
| latin_name =Leptinotarsa decemlineata
| image =Colorado potato beetle.jpg
| crop = Potato, tomato, eggplant, pepper
| caption =
| range = [[Image:Kartoffelkaefer fg01e.jpg|thumb|300px|Range of ''Leptinotarsa decemlineata'']] Native to the Southwestern USA and Mexico, the Colorado potato beetle spread through the rest of the country, and into much of Canada. It then spread to continental Europe and Asia.
| description =The Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata, also known as the Colorado beetle, ten-striped spearman, the ten-lined potato beetle) is an important pest of potato crops. It is approximately 10 mm (0.4 inches) long, with a bright yellow/orange body and 5 bold brown stripes along the length of each of its elytra, and it can easily be confused with its close cousin and look-alike, the false potato beetle
| control = Insecticides are often unsuccessful when used against Leptinotarsa because of the beetle's resistance to toxins and ability to rapidly develop resistance to them. The Colorado beetle has developed resistance to all major insecticide classes. In areas where the CPB has not developed resistance to pesticides, it is crucially important to not repeated reuse the same type of chemical control, or the CPB will develop resistance to it.

The CPB can be hand picked from the plants. Crop rotation is another effective strategy, the key being to put next year's potato crop as far as possible from last year's crop. Plants can also be covered with ''floating row covers'' - a thin fabric which allows moisture and air to circulate, but prevents access to the plants by the beetle.
}}

===Japanese beetle ===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = Japanese beetle
| latin_name =Popillia japonica
| image =Jbeetle.jpg
| caption =
| range = [[Image:Jbmap.gif|thumb|200px|Map showing the parts of the United States currently infested by Japanese beetles.]] As the name suggests, the Japanese beetle is native to Japan. The insect was first found in the United States in 1916 in a nursery near Riverton, New Jersey. It is thought that beetle larvae entered the United States in a shipment of iris bulbs prior to 1912 when inspections of commodities entering the country began.

| description =The Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) is a beetle about 1.5 cm (0.6 inches) long and 1 cm (0.4 inches) wide (smaller in Canada), with shiny copper-colored elytra and a shiny green top of the thorax and head. It is not very destructive in Japan, where it is controlled by natural enemies, but in America it is a serious pest.
| crop = Rose bushes, grapes, canna, crape myrtles, squash, strawberries, tomatoes, peppers, grapes, plums, pears, peaches, raspberries, blackberries, corn, peas and other plants.
| control = During the larval stage, the Japanese beetle lives in lawns and other grasslands, where it eats the roots of grass. During that stage, it is susceptible to a fatal disease called milky spore disease, caused by a bacterium called milky spore, Paenibacillus (formerly Bacillus) popilliae. The USDA developed this biological control and it is commercially available in powder form for application to lawn areas. Standard applications (low density across a broad area) take from one to five years to establish maximal protection against larval survival (depending on climate), expanding through the soil through repeated rounds of infection, in-host multiplication, release from killed host, and infection. Typically proper application can lead to a 15-20 year period of protection.

On field crops such as squash, floating row covers can be used to exclude the beetles, however this may necessitate hand pollination of flowers. Kaolin sprays can also be used as barriers.

Research performed by many US extension service branches has shown that pheromone traps may attract more beetles than they catch, and so they have fallen out of favor. Natural repellents include catnip, chives, garlic, and tansy, as well as the remains of dead beetles.
}}

===European corn borer ===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = European corn borer
| latin_name =Ostrinia nubilalis
| image =Corn borer.jpg
| caption =
| crop = Corn
| range = Native to Europe although it is found in North America as well
| description =The European Corn Borer (''Ostrinia nubilalis'') is a pest of corn. Female corn borer moths lay clusters of eggs on corn leaves, usually on the underside of the leaf.

The egg masses, or clusters, are laid in an overlapping configuration and are whitish-yellow in color. As the larvae develop inside their eggs, the eggs become more and more transparent and the immature caterpillar's black head is eventually visible. The caterpillars hatch by chewing their way out of the eggs.

European corn borer caterpillars damage the ears of corn, as well as the stalks, chewing tunnels which cause the plants to fall over.
| control = Biological control agents of corn borers include the hymenopteran parasitoid Trichogramma.
}}

===Boll weevil ===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = Boll weevil
| latin_name =Anthonomus grandis
| image =Cotton_boll_weevil.jpg
| caption =
| crop = Cotton
| range = Thought to be native to Central America, it migrated into the US from Mexico in the late 19th century and had infested all US cotton-growing areas by the 1920s, devastating the industry and the people working there and traumatizing the people of the American south. During the late 20th century it became a serious pest in South America as well.
| description =The boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) is a beetle measuring an average length of six millimeters, which feeds on cotton buds and flowers.
| control = The Boll Weevil Eradication Program is a program sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) that has sought to eradicate the boll weevil in the cotton-growing areas of the United States. It is one of the world's most successful implementations of integrated pest management. Three main techniques are employed over a 3- to 5-year period: pheromone traps for detection, cultural practices to reduce the weevil’s food supply, and malathion treatments. During the first year, applications of malathion are made every five to seven days starting in late summer. The frequency is reduced to every 10 days during the later part of the growing season until the first frost. The cotton stalks are shredded and plowed into the ground to eliminate their use as a winter shelter. During years 2 through 5, the automatic spraying is supplemented by an intensive trapping program (one trap per 1-2 acres), and malathion applications are made only in those fields where weevils are detected. This phase begins in late spring and continues until the first killing frost. The final phase of the program involves monitoring and trapping at a density of one trap per 10 acres, with spot spraying as required. The program has become more high-tech in recent years, employing GPS mapping technology and bar code readers that transmit trap data electronically.
}}

=== Cutworm ===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = Cutworm
| latin_name =Noctuidae
| image =Spodoptera exigua.png
| caption =The beet armyworm (''Spodoptera exigua'')
| crop = Most often tomato, pepper, pea, or bean
| range = Their distribution is worldwide.
| description =The term cutworm is used for the larvae of many species of moth. Most cutworms are in the moth family Noctuidae, however, many noctuid larvae are not cutworms. Cutworms are notorious agricultural and garden pests. They are voracious leaf, bud, and stem feeders and can destroy entire plants. They get their name from their habit of "cutting" off a seedling at ground level by chewing through the stem. Some species are subterranean and eat roots. Cutworms are usually green, brown, or yellow soft-bodied caterpillars, often with longitudinal stripes, up to one inch in length. There are many variations across the genera.
| control = While there are pesticides which can control these insects, the non-industrial gardener can protect threatened plants by simply impeding the ground-hiding cutworm caterpillar from climbing the plant; they hide in the soil near the plants and climb them at night.

To prevent this, one can:

* Place a "cutworm ring" around the plant. It can be a can with both ends cut off, or anything similar, even a ring made of cardboard. It should be at least four inches high above the soil and go one inch below the surface. Some even use five gallon buckets with the bottom cut out, planting the seedling and bucket at the same time.
* Wrap the stem of the plant in aluminium foil, wax paper, coloured paper, cardboard, or plastic.
* Reputedly as reliable as anything: simply brace both sides of the stem with popsicle sticks, toothpicks, or even sticks from the yard. If they run smoothly up the side of the plant several inches, this apparently stops the cutworm from "wrapping itself around" the plant, necessary for its evolved method of cutting it off. In fact, cutworms do not chew through stems by "wrapping" themselves, so the efficacy of this method is highly doubtful.
}}

=== Brown marmorated stink bug===
{{Argicultural pest
|color=tan
| common_name = Brown marmorated stink bug
| latin_name =Halyomorpha halys
| image =BMSB 05.jpg
| caption =
| crop = Fruits, vegetables, soybeans
| range = The brown marmorated stink bug is believed to have "hitched a ride" to the United States as a stowaway in packing crates from Asia; it was accidentally introduced there from China or Japan. Its native range also includes Korea and Taiwan.
| description = Looks similar in appearance to other native species of shield bugs including ''Acrosternum'', ''Euschistus'', and ''Podisus'', except that several of the abdominal segments protrude from beneath the wings and are alternatively banded with black and white (visible along the edge of the bug even when wings are folded) and a white stripe or band on the next to last (4th) antennal segment. The adults are approximately 5/8 inch long and the underside is white or pale tan, sometimes with grey or black markings. The legs are brown with faint white banding.
| control = Infestations should be reported to your local county Cooperative Extension office as this is a fairly new species to invade the United States. They will be able to help you control them.
}}

==7. Locate two sources of agricultural weather information. How is this information helpful to the farmer?==
# [http://www.usda.gov/oce/weather/pubs/Weekly/Wwcb/index.htm USDA's Weekly Weather and Climate Bulletin]
# [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climateresearch.html U.S. National Climate Data Center]

Climate is what to expect. Weather is what you get. Climate is basically a long-term average of what the weather has done in the past.

Knowing the climate helps the farmer plan agricultural activities such as planting and harvesting, as well as assisting in crop selection. Crops need to be in the ground early enough that they will be able to produce their yield before the first frost, but late enough to avoid springtime frosts. The climate tells the farmer how many growing days to expect, and that can be compared to the number of growing days required by various crops. Some crops also need to be harvested before the weather gets too hot, and other crops may allow multiple plantings and harvestings per season.

Weather also plays a hand in timing agricultural activities. A field needs to dry out before it is plowed, and then it may need to dry out for a few more days before it is disced. Dry weather is also needed to allow hay time to cure between mowing and bailing, and it is sometimes important when applying fertilizers or pesticides.

==8. Assist in planting, cultivating, and harvesting at least four different crops. Maintain a log of work done and problems encountered from seeding to harvest.==
Your log need not be any more complicated than a notebook and pen. You could include information such as:
*Plowing/Discing
** When was it done?
** What was the condition of the soil?
** Cost
*Planting
**Date
**Amount of seed used
**Method (how was the planting done?)
**Cost
*Fertilizer
**When applied
**What kind was applied
**Cost
*Pest Control
**Dates and types of pesticides and herbicides
**Cultivation dates
**Mechanical/cultural controls applied
**Cost
*Irrigation
**Dates
**Rainfall dates
**Cost
*Harvest
**Date
**Yield

==9. Know the purpose of the following: a. Plowing b. Disking c. Cultivating d. Irrigation e. Harvesting==
===a. Plowing===
The primary purpose of plowing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface, while burying weeds and the remains of previous crops, allowing them to break down. It also aerates the soil, and allows it to hold moisture better. In modern use, a plowed field is typically left to dry out, and is then harrowed before planting.
===b. Disking===
Disking is often carried out on fields to follow the rough finish left by plowing operations. The purpose of this is generally to break up clods and lumps of soil and to provide a finer finish, a good tilth or soil structure that is suitable for seeding and planting operations.

===c. Cultivating===
A cultivator is a farm implement for stirring and pulverizing the soil, either before planting or to remove weeds and to aerate and loosen the soil after the crop has begun to grow.
===d. Irrigation===
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil for assisting in growing crops. In crop production it is mainly used in dry areas and in periods of rainfall shortfalls, but also to protect plants against frost.
===e. Harvesting===
The purpose of harvesting is to collect the salable product grown in a field when it reaches maturity.

==10. Name and identify ten common birds of your locality, and state their value to the farmer.==
The greatest benefit birds provide to farmers is their voracious appetites for insects.

Please consult Wikibooks' [[Field Guide/Birds|Field Guide to Birds]] to help you identify ten birds in your area. As of this writing, this field guide is still in its infancy, so you might be well served to purchase a more thorough field guide. Field guides are generally tailored to a specific area of the world, so be sure to consult one that covers your area.

==11. What is erosion? How can it be prevented?==
Erosion is the displacement of soil by wind, water, or ice by downward or down-slope movement. It can occur quickly on steep ground - especially if there is nothing growing there. It can be slowed by minimizing the amount of time the land has nothing growing on it. When plowing, discing, or planting, it is best to make furrows perpendicular to the slope of the ground. Plowing straight uphill will cause furrows to act as ever-widening ditches that channel the water quickly away, carrying soil with it. Plowing across a hill instead slows the descent of rainwater and allows it to drop the sediments it picks up rather than carrying it off.

==12. Visit your local cooperative extension service and find out how the organization helps the farmer. Write a one-page report of your visit.==
The Cooperative Extension Service, also known as the Extension Service of the USDA, is a non-formal educational program implemented in the United States designed to help people use research-based knowledge to improve their lives. The service is provided by the state's designated land-grant universities. In most states the educational offerings are in the areas of agriculture and food, home and family, the environment, community economic development, and youth and 4-H. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service of the USDA administers funding for Smith Lever Act services in cooperation with state and county governments and land-grant universities.

This table summarizes the cooperative extension programs in each state. (Under the 1890 amendment to the Morrill Act, if a state's land-grant university was not open to all races, a separate land-grant university had to be established for each race. Hence, some states have more than one land-grant university.)
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Cooperative Extension<ref>http://www.csrees.usda.gov/qlinks/partners/partners_list.pdf Retrieve 2007-10-22.</ref>
!State!!University!!Extension Website
|-
|Alabama ||Alabama A&M University Auburn University Tuskegee University<ref>Although Tuskeegee University has been a private university, it began to receive Cooperative Extension funding in 1972.</ref> ||[http://www.aces.edu/ Alabama Cooperative Extension System]
|-
|Alaska ||University of Alaska ||[http://www.uaf.edu/ces/ University of Alaska Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Arizona ||University of Arizona ||[http://ag.arizona.edu/extension/ Arizona Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Arkansas ||University of Arkansas University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff ||[http://www.uaex.edu/ University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|California ||University of California ||[http://ucanr.org/ University of California Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Colorado ||Colorado State University ||[http://www.ext.colostate.edu/ Colorado State Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Connecticut ||University of Connecticut ||[http://www.lib.uconn.edu/CANR/ces/ Connecticut Cooperative Extension System]
|-
|Delaware ||University of Delaware Delaware State University ||[http://ag.udel.edu/extension/ Delaware Cooperative Extension] [http://cars.desu.edu/extension/extension.html DSU Cooperative Extension]
|-
|District of Columbia ||University of the District of Columbia ||[http://www.udc.edu/cooperative_extension/coop_ext.htm University of the District of Columbia Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|Florida ||University of Florida Florida A&M University ||[http://solutionsforyourlife.ufl.edu/ University of Florida IFAS Extension]
|-
|Georgia ||University of Georgia Fort Valley State University ||[http://ugaextension.com/ University of Georgia Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Hawaii ||University of Hawaii ||[http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/extout/extout.asp University of Hawaii Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|Idaho ||University of Idaho ||[http://www.uidaho.edu/ag/extension/ University of Idaho Extension]
|-
|Illinois ||University of Illinois ||[http://www.extension.uiuc.edu/ University of Illinois Extension]
|-
|Indiana ||Purdue University ||[http://www.ces.purdue.edu/ Purdue University Extension]
|-
|Iowa ||Iowa State University ||[http://www.exnet.iastate.edu/ Iowa State University Extension]
|-
|Kansas ||Kansas State University ||[http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/ Kansas State University Research & Extension]
|-
|Kentucky ||University of Kentucky ||[http://www.ca.uky.edu/ces/index.htm University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|Louisiana ||Louisiana State University Southern University and A&M College ||[http://www.lsuagcenter.com/nav/extension/extension.asp Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|Maine ||University of Maine ||[http://www.umext.maine.edu/ University of Maine Extension]
|-
|Maryland ||University of Maryland University of Maryland Eastern Shore ||[http://www.agnr.umd.edu/MCE/index.cfm Maryland Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Massachusetts ||University of Massachusetts ||[http://www.umassextension.org/ University of Massachusetts Extension]
|-
|Michigan ||Michigan State University ||[http://www.msue.msu.edu/ Michigan State University Extension]
|-
|Minnesota ||University of Minnesota ||[http://www.extension.umn.edu/ Minnesota Extension Service]
|-
|Mississippi ||Mississippi State University Alcorn State University ||[http://msucares.com Mississippi State University Extension]
|-
|Missouri ||University of Missouri Lincoln University ||[http://muextension.missouri.edu/index.htm University of Missouri Extension]
|-
|Montana ||Montana State University ||[http://extn.msu.montana.edu/ Montana State University Extension Service]
|-
|Nebraska ||University of Nebraska ||[http://www.ianr.unl.edu/ianr/coopext/coopext.htm University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Nevada ||University of Nevada ||[http://www.unce.unr.edu/ University of Nevada Cooperative Extension]
|-
|New Hampshire ||University of New Hampshire ||[http://extension.unh.edu/ University of New Hampshire Cooperative Extension]
|-
|New Jersey ||Rutgers University ||[http://www.rce.rutgers.edu/ Rutgers Cooperative Extension]
|-
|New Mexico ||New Mexico State University ||[http://www.cahe.nmsu.edu/ces/ New Mexico State University Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|New York ||Cornell University ||[http://www.cce.cornell.edu/ Cornell Cooperative Extension]
|-
|North Carolina ||North Carolina State University North Carolina A&T State University ||[http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/ North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service] [http://www.ag.ncat.edu/extension/ North Carolina A&T State University Cooperative Extension Program]
|-
|North Dakota ||North Dakota State University ||[http://www.ext.nodak.edu/ North Dakota State University Extension Service]
|-
|Ohio ||Ohio State University ||[http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/ The Ohio State University Extension]
|-
|Oklahoma ||Oklahoma State University ||[http://www.dasnr.okstate.edu/oces/ Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|Oregon ||Oregon State University ||[http://extension.oregonstate.edu/ Oregon State University Extension Service]
|-
|Pennsylvania ||Penn State ||[http://www.extension.psu.edu/ Penn State Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Rhode Island ||University of Rhode Island ||[http://www.uri.edu/ce/ University of Rhode Island Cooperative Extension]
|-
|South Carolina ||Clemson University South Carolina State University || [http://www.clemson.edu/extension/ Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|South Dakota ||South Dakota State University ||[http://sdces.sdstate.edu/ South Dakota State University Cooperative Extension Service]
|-
|Tennessee ||University of Tennessee Tennessee State University ||[http://www.utextension.utk.edu/ University of Tennessee Extension] [http://www.tnstate.edu/cep/ Tennessee State University Cooperative Extension Program]
|-
|Texas ||Texas A&M University Prairie View A&M University ||[http://texasextension.tamu.edu/ Texas AgriLife Extension Service]
|-
|Utah ||Utah State University ||[http://www.ext.usu.edu/ Utah State University Extension]
|-
|Vermont ||University of Vermont ||[http://www.uvm.edu/extension/ University of Vermont Extension System]
|-
|Virginia ||Virginia Tech Virginia State University ||[http://www.ext.vt.edu/ Virginia Cooperative Extension]
|-
|Washington ||Washington State University ||[http://ext.wsu.edu/ Washington State University Extension]
|-
|West Virginia ||West Virginia University ||[http://www.wvu.edu/~exten/ West Virginia University Extension Service]
|-
|Wisconsin ||University of Wisconsin-Extension ||[http://www.uwex.edu/ces/ University of Wisconsin Extension]
|-
|Wyoming ||University of Wyoming ||[http://uwadmnweb.uwyo.edu/UWces/ University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service]
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]

AY Honors/Blood and the Body's Defenses/Answer Key

2012-12-28T15:33:01Z

213.82.45.148: /* 1. Have the Microscopic Life honor. */

{{honor_header|2|2000|Health and Science|General Conference|Blood_Defenses.png}}

Hello! ebbeedk interesting ebbeedk site! I'm really like it! Very, very ebbeedk good!

== 2. Name two major constituents of blood. What is the percentage of each in normal blood? ==
Human blood consists of about 45% blood cells, and 55% plasma.

== 3. Be able to draw pictures of and name the 7 types of blood cells and indicate what each type does. ==

<gallery>
Image:Redbloodcells.jpg|Red Blood Cells
Image:Blood_platelets.jpg|Platelets
Image:PBNeutrophil.jpg|Neutrolphil
Image:WBC_eosinophil.jpg|Eosinophil
Image:PBBasophil.jpg|Basophil
Image:Lymphocyte_GL.jpg|Lymphocyte
Image:Monocyte.jpg|Monocyte
</gallery>
 

Blood cells are treated with a staining agent before they are photographed so that identifiable features will stand out.

'''1. Red Blood Cells''' are responsible for transporting oxygen to other cells in the body, and for collecting carbon dioxide from them for disposal. Red blood cells can be identified by their donut-shape.

'''2. Platelets''' are the blood cell fragments that are involved in the cellular mechanisms that lead to the formation of blood clots. Platelets appear in most of the photographs above as tiny, irregular, bluish specks.

'''3. Neutrophils''', are a type of white blood cell which travel to infected tissue and surround bacteria, rendering them harmless to the body. The picture above shows two neutrophils surrounded by multiple red blood cells. Neutrophils have segmented nuclei and small granules that stain purple.

'''4. Eosinophils''', are a second type of white blood cells and are responsible for combating infections by parasites. Eosinophils are filled with large granules that stain red.

'''5. Basophils''' are a third type of white blood cell which store histamine, a chemical that is secreted by the cells when stimulated in certain ways (histamine causes some of the symptoms of an allergic reaction). Basophils tend to appear in specific kinds of inflammatory reactions, particularly those that cause allergic symptoms. Basophils have large, dark granules in the cell that may cover the nucleus.

'''6. Lymphocytes''' are a fourth type of white blood cell involved in the human body's immune system. There are two broad categories of lymphocytes, namely T cells and B cells. T cells are especially important in cell-mediated immunity, which is the defense against tumor cells and pathogenic organisms inside body cells. They are also involved in rejection reactions. B cells, in the presence of an antigen (a substance that stimulates an immune response), can become much more metabolically active and differentiate into plasma cells, which secrete large quantities of antibodies. Lymphocytes have no granules, and they have very large nuclei that take up nearly all of the cell's area.

'''7. Monocytes''', are a fifth type of white blood cell which also travel to infected tissue and turn into ''macrophages''. As macrophages, these cells kill germs (including cancer cells) and start the production of antibodies. Like neutrophils, monocytes have no granules, but their nuclei take up only about half the cell's area. A monocyte's nucleus often has an indentation in it.

== 4. Observe some preserved human blood under a microscope. Count 100 white blood cells and draw a graph showing the number of each of the five types of white blood cells you found. Which type is most common? Which type is least common? ==

Prepared microscope slides are offered for sale at many scholastic supply houses. Many retailers offering such slides have an Internet presence. Before spending money on this, check with a local high school biology teacher. They will have microscopes and very well may have slides on hand already.

The charts below show the expected distribution of the different types of cells. It is possible that you may not see any eosinophils or basophils in your sample since they are so rare and you're only looking at 100 white blood cells.

 
[[Image:White_blood_cell_distribution.png|right|400px]]
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"
|+ '''White Blood Cell Distribution chart'''
!style="background:#CFCFCF"| '''White Blood Cell Type'''
!style="background:#CFCFCF"| '''Range'''
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| Neutrophils || 50-70%
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| Lymphocytes || 15-40%
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| Monocytes || 2-8%
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| Eosinophils || 1-4%
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| Basophils || 0.4-1.0%
|}

Reference for white blood cell distribution: [http://www.fpnotebook.com/HEM86.htm Family Practice Notebook]
 

== 5. Do at least one of the following and report on what you observed. ==
=== Observe blood being drawn from someone's arm by a medical professional. ===
This requirement can be met by organizing a blood drive for your church. Blood donation organizations will not accept blood from minors, but there are still ample opportunities for the Pathfinders to help in other ways. This is an excellent way to meet the Community Service requirements for the AY curriculum.

Invite the organization to have a blood drive at your church. Well before the date of the blood drive, have the Pathfinders advertise the event (this is a good opportunity to earn the Lettering and Poster Making honor). Be sure to announce the blood drive in church for several weeks. On the day of the event, the Pathfinders should help set everything up, greet people, hand out paper work to the donors, serve cookies and juice, and clean up afterwards.

=== With the help of an experienced person, observe blood flowing through some capillaries (either on video tape or in a living organism such as a hamster cheek-pouch, frog skin, or goldfish tail, using a microscope). ===
This downloadable
[http://www.klbschool.org.uk/interactive/science/heart_hlp.htm movie clip] shows blood flowing through a capillary, but it's very short. Its shortness does make for a quick download (56Kbytes). It is best to play the movie in "loop" mode.

This much longer (11 Mbytes) [http://www.apsarchive.org/renalpelvis/caliceal_dynamics_capillaries.htm movie clip] also shows blood flowing through a capillary.

=== Visit a medical lab where blood tests are performed. ===
Talk to your personal physician or a doctor in your church to find out where the local medical labs are.

=== Visit a blood bank. ===
Contact your local [[w:Red Cross|Red Cross]] to arrange a visit. You can find your local chapter at their
[http://www.redcross.org website].

== 6. What two gases are transported by the red blood cells? Explain why blood appears blue/green in your veins, but if you cut yourself, the blood that comes out is bright red. Explain why a lack of iron in your diet might make you have yellowish-colored blood.==
Red blood cells transport oxygen to the rest of the body and carry the carbon dioxide away. Blood carrying oxygen appears bright red. When you cut yourself, your blood is exposed to oxygen in the air, and this is sufficient to cause it to turn color. When little oxygen is present is the blood, it is still red, but it is much darker, tending more towards black. Blood is neither blue nor green inside your veins, but it looks this way sometimes because the veins themselves and pigment in your skin impart a bluish tint.

Blood carries oxygen by letting it bind loosely with iron. Without sufficient iron in the blood, its oxygen carrying capacity is reduced. Since oxygen is what makes the blood bright red, it cannot assume this color without iron. Blood plasma is yellow, so when the red cells cannot impart their color to the blood with full power, the underlying color of the plasma has a greater influence.

== 7. Explain how blood clots when you are injured. How does typical "First Aid" help in the process?==
Blood clotting occurs in two stages called ''primary hemostasis'' and ''secondary hemostasis.'' Primary hemostasis begins immediately after the wall of a blood vessel is broken. Platelets in the blood bind to a protein called collagen which is found in the vessel wall. Normally the collagen is hidden from the platelets, but when the blood vessel is broken, it becomes exposed. When the platelets bind with the collagen, it forms a plug which slows the flow of blood through the break in the blood vessel.

Secondary hemostasis takes place over the next couple of hours. A protein in the blood called ''fibrinogen'' is converted to ''fibrin'' which is long and string-like. The fibrin forms a mesh which makes the clot larger, eventually sealing the break in the blood vessel.

Typical first aid for bleeding concentrates on slowing and stopping the flow of blood from the wound. If the blood is allowed to pool around the wound instead of flowing out of it, more platelets and fibrinogen is available on the scene and the clot can form more quickly.

== 8. What does it mean to be a blood donor? If possible, know your blood type. What types of blood can be donated to you? Which blood types cannot be donated to you? Why?==

Being a blood donor means that a person allows his or her blood to be drawn so that it can be used at a later time. Sometimes the blood is used by another person, and sometimes the blood is used by the donor herself. Often when a person is scheduled for surgery and has plenty of advance notice, she has the opportunity to bank some of her own blood. This is called an autologous donation. Autologous blood donations do not need to be screened for things like AIDS or hepatitis because the person cannot contract a disease from herself. If she has the disease, she has the disease. If she doesn't, she won't contract it from her own blood. However, if the blood donation is ''not'' autologous, it is carefully screened for all types of potential diseases so that the person receiving it does not contract it from the transfusion.

Before donating blood, the donor must fill out an extensive questionaire. If the donor has traveled in certain foreign countries recently (where tropical diseases are common, for instance), or if the person is at high risk for contracting AIDS, the blood donation will not be accepted. Blood is also not accepted from people who have ever had cancer, hepatitis, or any number of other diseases.

Once the forms have been filled out, the blood type is tested, and then the donor lies on a table. A tube is inserted in an arm vein (this may involve a little pain, but it is brief and not severe), and the donor is then asked to squeeze a rubber ball. The amount of time spent lying on the table depends on how quickly a pint of blood can be extracted, but it ranges between five and twenty minutes. When a pint of blood has been extracted, the tube is removed and the donor may slowly sit up. The wound is bandaged, and free cookies and juice are served to replenish the donor's body fluids and restore sugar.

'''Blood typing''' can be done at home or in the classroom.
[http://www.sargentwelch.com Sargent-Welch] sells blood typing kits that will test the blood type of 50 individuals for about $1.00 per person. These kits are made for educational settings.

[http://www.healthhometest.com Health Hometest] has kits you can buy for testing a single person for about $10.00.

[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/educational/landsteiner/index.html Nobelprize.org] has an online "Blood Typing Game" for determining the blood type of a virtual patient.

The ABO and Rh blood typing systems categorize blood according to the way antigens and antibodies behave in a person's blood.

'''ABO Groups:'''

* '''Blood Group A:''' Persons with type A blood have type A antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and type B antibodies in their blood plasma.
* '''Blood Group B:''' Persons with type B blood have type B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and type A antibodies in their blood plasma.
* '''Blood Group AB:''' Persons with type AB blood have both type A and type B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and neither type A nor type B antibodies in their blood plasma.
* '''Blood Group O:''' Persons with type O blood have neither type A nor type B antigens on the surface of their red blood cells and they have both type A and type B antibodies in their blood plasma.

'''Rh Factor:'''
* '''Rh Positive''' blood has Rh antigens on the surface of the red blood cells, and does not have Rh antibodies in the blood plasma.
* '''Rh negative''' blood does not have Rh antigens on the surface of their red blood cells. It does not naturally have Rh antibodies in the blood plasma, but it can develop them if exposed to Rh positive antigens (if for instance, Rh+ blood is given to an Rh- patient).

The ABO group and Rh factor are combined to specify the blood type. So a person with type AB+ (pronounced AB positive) blood has type AB blood and is Rh positive.

The blood plasma and corpuscles (red cells, white cells, and platelets) are separated in donated blood before it is transfused into a patient. This removes most of the donor's antibodies from the blood since the antibodies are present in the plasma. Because antibodies attack cells with a specific antigen marker, people with type A antibodies cannot receive blood that has type A antigens. If a person with type A antibodies receives blood with type A antigens, the patient's blood will attack the donated blood causing it to clump together and eventually break down. When the cells break down, they can release toxins that could possibly kill the patient. The same holds for type B and type Rh antigens and antibodies.

 
{| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"
|+ '''Blood compatibility chart'''
!style="background:#CFCFCF"| '''Recipient Blood Type'''
!colspan="8" style="background:#CFCFCF"| '''Donor must be'''
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| AB+
! colspan="4" | Any blood type
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| AB- || O- || A- || B- || AB-
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| A+ || O- || O+ || A- || A+
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| A- || O- || A- ||   ||  
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| B+ || O- || O+ || B- || B+
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| B- || O- || B- ||   ||  
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| O+ || O- || O+ ||   ||  
|- align="center"
! style="background:#EFEFEF"| O- || O- ||   ||   ||  
|}

== 9. Tell two stories in the Bible in which blood is involved. From what you know about blood, why do you think that the Bible uses blood as a symbol of God's saving power?==

* '''Joseph's brothers''' dip his coat in blood before returning to their father. Genesis 37:12-36.
* '''The Nile turns to blood''' during the showdown between Moses and Pharaoh. Exodus 7:14-24.
* During '''Passover''' the angel of death passes over houses marked with blood. Exodus 12:1-30.
* Blood is taken into the Most Holy Place on the '''Day of Atonement.''' Leviticus 16
* '''The priests of Baal''' cut themselves in their contest with Elijah on Mount Carmel. 1 Kings 18:16-40.
* '''King Ahab''' bleeds to death in his chariot. 1 Kings 22:29-40.
* '''The Last Supper''' is a symbol of Christ's body and blood. Luke 22:7-32.
* '''Jesus's side is pierced''' on the cross and blood and water flows out. John 19:28-37.
* '''The saints' robes''' washed in the blood of Jesus. Revelation 7:15

Blood is responsible for collecting waste from all over our bodies. In this sense, it literally washes us on the inside, just as Christ's blood washes away our sins.

== 10. List 10 specific health habits that can help your body stay healthy and fight off infection. Find a reference from the Spirit of Prophesy that supports each one of these. Keep a record for three weeks of how often you repeat these 10 habits.==

*'''1. Proper Diet.''' ''"When we feed on flesh, the juices of what we eat pass into the circulation. A feverish condition is created, because the animals are diseased; and by partaking of their flesh we plant the seeds of disease in our own tissue and blood."'' Healthful Living, p 212

*'''2. Fresh Air.''' ''"The effects produced by living in close, ill-ventilated rooms are these: The system becomes weak and unhealthy, the circulation is depressed, the blood moves sluggishly through the system because it is not purified and ventilated by the pure, invigorating air of heaven. The mind becomes depressed and gloomy, while the whole system is enervated, and fevers and other acute diseases are liable to be generated."''-- Healthful Living, p 212.

*'''3. Get Plenty of Sleep.''' Your immune system replenishes itself while you sleep, so not getting enough sleep robs it of the time it needs to fully recharge. The amount of sleep a person needs varies from one individual to another, but most people need eight hours per night. If you wake up exhausted, you're not getting enough sleep.
''"They may be weary, but how sweet is rest after a proper amount of labor. Sleep, nature's sweet restorer, invigorates the tired body and prepares it for the next day's duties."''--Child Guidance, pp 341,342.

*'''4. Avoid Caffeine.''' Caffeine interferes with your ability to get to sleep, so it should be avoided - especially after noon.
''"The stimulating diet and drink of this day are not conducive to the best state of health. Tea, coffee, and tobacco are all stimulating, and contain poisons. They are not only unnecessary, but harmful, and should be discarded if we would add to knowledge, temperance."''--Review and Herald, Feb. 21, 1888.

*'''5. Do Not Drink Alcohol.''' ''"Alcohol and tobacco pollute the blood of men, and thousands of lives are yearly sacrificed to these poisons."''--Health Reformer, November, 1871.

*'''6. Do Not Use Tobacco.''' See above.

*'''7. Be Happy.''' A cheerful heart does good, like a medicine.
''"Let the sunshine of love, cheer, and happy content enter your own hearts, and let its sweet influence pervade the home. . . . The atmosphere thus created will be to the children what air and sunshine are to the vegetable world, promoting health and vigor of mind and body."''--Sons and Daughters of God, pg 168.

*'''8. Regular Exercise.''' ''"In many cases the sickness of children can be traced to errors in management. Irregularities in eating, insufficient clothing in the chilly evening, lack of vigorous exercise to keep the blood in healthy circulation, or lack of abundance of air for its purification, may be the cause of the trouble. Let the parents study to find the causes of the sickness and then remedy the wrong conditions as soon as possible."''--Adventist Home, pg 263.

*'''9. Regular Bathing.''' Taking a bath or a shower regularly washes pathogens from your skin and thus, away from your body.
''"Persons in health should . . . by all means bathe as often as twice a week. Those who are not in health have impurities of the blood. . . . The skin needs to be carefully and thoroughly cleansed, that the pores may do their work in freeing the body from impurities; therefore feeble persons who are diseased surely need the advantages and blessings of bathing as often as twice a week, and frequently even more than this is positively necessary."''-- Testimonies to the Church, Volume III, p. 70.

*'''10. Wear Clean Clothing.''' Clothes that are worn day after day accumulate dirt and bacteria. Change into clean clothing every day and keep the "nasties" away.
''"It is important also that the clothing be kept clean. The garments worn absorb the waste matter that passes off through the pores; if they are not frequently changed and washed, the impurities will be reabsorbed."''--Child Guidance pg 109.

*'''11. Keep Your Home Clean.''' Bacteria love dirt. Keep it out of your house. Allow plenty of sunshine to enter your house during the day, and allow fresh air in as often as possible. Sunshine kills many forms of bacteria, and stale air harbors it.
''"I have often seen children's beds in such a condition that the foul, poisonous odor constantly rising from them was to me unendurable. Keep everything the eyes of the children rest upon and that comes in contact with the body, night or day, clean and wholesome. This will be one means of educating them to choose the cleanly and the pure. Let the sleeping room of your children be neat, however destitute it may be of expensive furniture."''--Child Guidance pg 109.

== 11. Define the following terms related to the body's defenses: ==

*'''Immunology:''' a broad branch of biomedical science that covers the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms.
*'''Pathogen:''' a biological agent that causes disease or illness to its host.
*'''Inflammation:''' a pathological condition of any part of the body. It is manifested outwardly by redness and swelling, attended with heat and pain.
*'''Antibody:''' a protein used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects like bacteria and viruses. Each antibody recognizes a specific antigen unique to its target.
*'''Memory Cells:''' are a type of lymphocte (also known as memory B cells) that are formed following primary infection. When a B cell is activated by recognizing a specific antigen, it quickly reproduces to form antibody producing plasma cells and long-lived memory cells. The memory B cells are specific for the antigen that first stimulated their production.
*'''Immunity:''' a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion.
*'''Vaccine:''' a medication given to stimulate the body's production of antibodies and provide immunity against a disease, prepared from the agent that causes the disease, or a synthetic substitute.
*'''Allergy:''' an immune malfunction whereby a person's body is over-sensitive to a substance that is harmless to most people, causing the immune system to attack it.
*'''Histamine:''' a chemical released by basophils and ''mast cells'' (which are very simlar to basophils) and causing an immune response. In some cases, the response is unwarranted because the invading substance is harmless. In this case, the response is known as an allergic reaction. Histamines cause inflammation of the tissue, watery eyes, itching, runny nose, and sneezing.
*'''Antihistamine:''' a drug that suppresses the release of histamine. Examples include the prescription drugs Clarinex, Allegra, and Zyrtec, and the over-the-counter drugs Claratin and Benadryl.

== 12. Poison ivy and poison oak are often encountered by active Pathfinders. Be able to identify poison ivy and poison oak, and know how to avoid having allergic reactions to them, and explain what to do if you get an allergic reaction to either of them. ==

<gallery>
Image:Toxicodendron_radicans.jpg|Poison Ivy
Image:PoisonOak_wb_biggerLeaves.jpg|Poison Oak
</gallery>

Poison ivy is shown in the picture on the left. Poison Oak is on the right. Learn to identify these by sight. Poison ivy most often grows on "disturbed" ground, including stream banks, roadsides, and the edge of woods. Both these plants contain an oil called urushiol which causes allergic reactions if it comes into contact with your skin. Contact can be made directly (by touching the plant) or indirectly (by touching something that has touched the plant, such as a clothing, a friend, or a pet).

The best way to avoid having an allergic reaction to either of these is to avoid them. In order to avoid them, you must be able to recognize them. If you do come into contact with either of these, wash the affected areas with hot soapy water as soon as possible. Wash clothes in hot water too. If your pet has contacted poison ivy or poison oak, wash him in hot soapy water to remove the oil from his fur. The oil will not harm your pet (most animals are not allergic to urushiol), but your pet can easily transfer the oil to you.

If you still get an allergic reaction, treatment depends on the severity of the reaction.

Seek emergency medical treatment under the following conditions:
# Swelling of the throat.
# Difficulty breathing.
# Weakness or dizziness.
# Bluish lips.
# Unconsciousness.

You should see a doctor if any of the following apply:
# A large area of the body is affected.
# Rash on the face.
# Rash around the eyes, mouth, or genitals.
# A rash with pus.

You may otherwise self-treat:
# For minor rashes, apply Calamine lotion (''not'' Caladryl), zinc oxide, or a mix of 3 teaspoons of baking soda with one teaspoon of water.
# Take an over-the-counter antihistamine such as Benadryl.
# Do not scratch

== 13. Make a list of as many as possible of the infectious diseases that you have had. Which ones are you now immune to? Explain why or why not. ==

A person acquires immunity to diseases he is exposed to either by contracting the disease or by receiving a vaccination. Vaccinations are weakened forms of the disease-causing ''pathogen'', and they stimulate the immune system to develop a defense against that particular pathogen.

Some diseases, such as influenza, mutate frequently, and the immune system having developed a defense against one strain is not prepared for the new, mutated strain. This is why flu shots are given annually. The vaccine is developed to combat ''this'' years version of the flu.

Other diseases such as tetanus and diphtheria require booster shots every 10 years to maintain the body's immunity.

== 14. From your personal medical records, list all of the vaccinations that you have had and determine from your doctor when your next vaccination should be. ==
Encourage your Pathfinders to ask their parents about their immunization records. These days pediatricians usually send immunization records home with the parents, so they should have them somewhere at home.

In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) recommends that vaccinations be given according to the schedule below. For a more up-to-date schedule, visit the [http://www.cdc.gov CDC's website].

[[Image:CDC_immunization_schedule.png|750px|]]

 

== 15. Write or tell about one infectious disease (at least 250 words). ==
An infectious disease is any sickness caused by a biological agent (such as a virus, bacteria, or parasite) as opposed to being caused by a physical agent (such as a burn or a cut).

Here is a list of infectious diseases common today:
[[w:AIDS|AIDS]], [[w:Measles|measles]], [[w:Tuberculosis|tuberculosis]], [[w:Malaria|malaria]], [[w:Pertussis|pertussis]] (whooping cough), [[w:Tetanus|tetanus]], [[w:Meningitis|meningitis]], [[w:Chicken pox|chicken pox]], [[w:influenza|influenza]] (the flu), and [[w:Hepatitis|hepatitis]].

Other infectious diseases have been largely eliminated through the use of vaccines, including [[w:Polio|polio]], [[w:Smallpox|smallpox]], and [[w:Diphtheria|diphtheria]].

== 16. What is AIDS? How is it spread? Is there a cure? Why is it so devastating? ==
AIDS is an acronym for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome or acquired immune deficiency syndrome and is defined as a collection of symptoms and infections resulting from the specific damage to the immune system caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus, commonly called HIV. Although treatments for both AIDS and HIV exist to slow the virus' progression in a human patient, there is no known cure.

AIDS is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a retrovirus that primarily infects vital components of the human immune system such as certain T cells and macrophages. It also destroys T cells. As T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough T cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system barely works, leading to AIDS.

The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in people with healthy immune systems. Most of these conditions are infections caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. Nearly every organ system is affected.

Three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified:

#'''Sexual route.''' The majority of HIV infections have been, and still are, acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or mouth mucous membranes of another.
#'''Blood or blood product route.''' This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, hemophiliacs and recipients of blood transfusions and blood products. Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors etc.) are also concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings.
#'''Mother-to-child route (vertical transmission).''' The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur in utero during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of Cesarean section, this has been reduced to 1%.

== 17. Find three Biblical references that have to do with cleanliness and the control of or spread of disease. ==
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=3&chapter=11&verse=36&end_verse=38&version=31&context=context Leviticus 11:36-38]

[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=3&chapter=13&verse=6&version=31&context=verse Leviticus 13:6]

[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=3&chapter=11&verse=25&version=31&context=verse Leviticus 11:25]

[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=3&chapter=13&verse=45&end_verse=47&version=31&context=context Leviticus 13:45-47]

[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=5&chapter=23&verse=12&context=verse Deuteronomy 23:12]

==References==
* Much of the information (and in some cases the text) of this chapter were drawn from the Wikipedia articles on Blood, Blood Type, AIDS, Histamine, Antihistamine, Basolphils, Eosinophils, Nuetrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, and others.

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